π± Gabapentin for Cats: Dosage Chart, Uses, and Expert Tips
Gabapentin is a versatile medication prescribed for cats to manage pain, anxiety, and seizures
Key Takeaways: Quick Answers About Gabapentin for Cats π
- What is gabapentin used for in cats?
β Pain relief, anxiety reduction, and seizure control. - What is the standard dosage?
π 5-40 mg/kg depending on the condition. - Can gabapentin cause side effects?
π¨ Yes, sedation and ataxia are common but mild. - Is it safe for long-term use?
π Yes, under veterinary supervision. - Can I use human liquid gabapentin?
β Avoid formulas containing xylitolβitβs toxic to cats.
1. What Is Gabapentin Prescribed for in Cats? πΎ
Gabapentin is a go-to medication for several conditions in cats due to its effectiveness and relative safety when used appropriately.
Primary Uses:
- Chronic Pain Relief: Often prescribed for arthritis, cancer-related pain, or post-surgical discomfort.
- Anxiety Management: Helps reduce stress during veterinary visits, travel, or other triggering events.
- Seizure Control: Used as an adjunct treatment for refractory or idiopathic seizures.
Condition | How Gabapentin Helps | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Chronic Pain | Reduces nerve-related discomfort | Combine with lifestyle changes like weight management |
Anxiety | Calms cats in stressful situations | Administer 1.5β3 hours before events β° |
Seizures | Acts as an adjunct therapy | Maintain regular doses for consistent effects |
π‘ Expert Insight: Gabapentin works by modulating nerve signals, making it particularly effective for managing neuropathic pain and reducing anxiety in sensitive cats.
2. How Much Gabapentin Should I Give My Cat? π Dosage Chart
The appropriate dosage depends on your catβs weight and the condition being treated. Always follow veterinary guidance for precise dosing.
Condition | Dosage (mg/kg) | Frequency | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
Chronic Pain | 5-10 mg/kg (2.27-4.54 mg/lb) | Every 12β24 hours | Start with lower doses and increase as needed. |
Anxiety | 10-20 mg/kg (4.54-9.07 mg/lb) | Single dose, 1.5β3 hours before event | Effective for vet visits or travel. |
Seizures | 10-40 mg/kg (4.54-18.14 mg/lb) | Every 8β12 hours | Used as part of a seizure management plan. |
Dosage Example: For a 10-pound (4.5 kg) cat with chronic pain:
- Calculation: 5 mg/kg Γ 4.5 kg = 22.5 mg
- Administration: Use a compounded liquid or tablet for precise dosing.
π‘ Expert Insight: Gabapentinβs effects vary by cat. Start with the lowest effective dose and monitor your pet closely for side effects.
3. What Are the Common Side Effects of Gabapentin? π¨
Gabapentin is generally safe but can cause mild side effects, particularly during the initial stages of treatment.
Potential Side Effects:
- Sedation: Cats may appear drowsy or less active.
- Ataxia: Temporary loss of coordination, especially at higher doses.
- Gastrointestinal Upset: Rare but possible; monitor for vomiting or diarrhea.
Side Effect | Why It Happens | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Sedation | Nervous system response | Administer at night to reduce daytime drowsiness π |
Ataxia | Dose-dependent neurological effect | Lower the dose if coordination issues persist. |
GI Upset | Rare reaction to medication | Ensure proper administration with food or water. |
π‘ Expert Insight: Side effects usually subside within a few days. If they persist, consult your veterinarian to adjust the dosage.
4. Can I Use Human Gabapentin for Cats? π«
Human formulations of gabapentin, especially liquids, often contain xylitol, a sweetener that is highly toxic to cats.
What You Need to Know:
- Check Ingredients: Only use veterinarian-prescribed gabapentin or compounded formulations without xylitol.
- Compounded Options: Liquid gabapentin can be compounded into cat-friendly doses and flavors.
- Tablet Precautions: Split tablets accurately if instructed by your vet.
Formulation | Suitability for Cats | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Human Liquid | Unsafe due to xylitol | Always confirm ingredients with your vet β |
Compounded Liquid | Safe and customizable | Choose flavors your cat prefers (e.g., chicken or tuna) π |
Tablets | Suitable when dosed correctly | Use a pill cutter for accuracy βοΈ |
π‘ Expert Insight: Never administer medication designed for humans without veterinary approvalβit can lead to severe toxicity in pets.
5. Is Gabapentin Safe for Long-Term Use in Cats? π
Gabapentin is safe for long-term use when prescribed and monitored by a veterinarian. Itβs particularly effective for managing chronic pain and seizures over extended periods.
Considerations for Long-Term Use:
- Regular Monitoring: Periodic check-ups ensure the medication remains effective and side effects are minimal.
- Tapering Off: Never stop gabapentin abruptly; tapering is necessary to avoid withdrawal symptoms.
- Combination Therapy: It can be combined with other medications for enhanced results, such as anti-inflammatories for arthritis.
Aspect | Why Itβs Safe Long-Term | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Regular Monitoring | Ensures continued safety and efficacy | Schedule vet visits every 6β12 months π |
Tapering | Prevents withdrawal symptoms | Gradually reduce dosage under supervision |
Combination Therapy | Enhances pain management effectiveness | Discuss multi-drug strategies with your vet π |
π‘ Expert Insight: Long-term use should always include periodic reassessment to adjust the dosage or explore alternative therapies if needed.
Final Recap
Question | Quick Answer |
---|---|
What is gabapentin used for? | Pain, anxiety, and seizure management. |
Whatβs the dosage range? | 5-40 mg/kg depending on the condition. |
Can it cause side effects? | Yes, sedation and ataxia are common but manageable. |
Is human gabapentin safe? | Only if itβs free from xylitol and prescribed by a vet. |
Can it be used long-term? | Yes, with regular monitoring and proper administration. |
By following these guidelines and consulting with your veterinarian, you can ensure your cat benefits from gabapentin safely and effectively. πΎβ¨
π¬ Comment 1: “Can gabapentin be given to kittens, or is it only for adult cats?”
Gabapentin can be administered to kittens, but the dosage and frequency require careful adjustment based on age, weight, and overall health. Due to their smaller size and developing organs, kittens are more sensitive to medications, making veterinary supervision critical.
Key Considerations for Kittens:
- Weight-Based Dosage: Gabapentin is dosed per kilogram of body weight, so the dose for kittens is significantly smaller than for adult cats.
- Developmental Stage: Young kittens may metabolize gabapentin differently, requiring adjustments to prevent sedation or other side effects.
- Compounded Formulas: Liquid gabapentin compounded specifically for kittens ensures precise dosing and palatability.
Factor | How It Impacts Use in Kittens | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Weight | Doses are proportionate to body size | Weigh kittens accurately before dosing βοΈ |
Organ Development | Immature kidneys and liver affect metabolism | Monitor closely for prolonged sedation π |
Formulation | Liquid form ensures accurate dosing | Choose kitten-friendly flavors like chicken π₯ |
π‘ Expert Insight: Always consult your vet for tailored recommendations when treating kittens with gabapentin, as improper dosing can lead to severe side effects.
π¬ Comment 2: “What are the signs that gabapentin is working effectively in my cat?”
When gabapentin is working effectively, youβll observe improvements in your catβs behavior, mobility, or stress levels, depending on the condition being treated. These changes may be subtle at first but should become more noticeable over time.
Signs of Effectiveness:
- Pain Relief: Increased activity, reduced limping, and willingness to jump or play indicate reduced discomfort.
- Anxiety Reduction: Calmer demeanor, less vocalization, and a relaxed body posture, especially during stressful situations like vet visits.
- Seizure Control: Decreased frequency or intensity of seizures.
Condition | How to Measure Effectiveness | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Chronic Pain | Improved mobility and activity levels | Track activity changes in a daily log π |
Anxiety | Noticeably calmer during triggers | Monitor behavior 1β3 hours post-dose β³ |
Seizures | Fewer or less severe episodes | Keep a seizure diary for tracking patterns π |
π‘ Expert Insight: If no improvement is observed within the expected timeframe, consult your veterinarian to adjust the dosage or explore alternative treatments.
π¬ Comment 3: “How should I administer gabapentin if my cat refuses to take pills?”
Many cats are notoriously picky about taking pills, but there are alternative methods to ensure your cat gets the medication they need. Gabapentin is available in various forms, making it easier to administer.
Administration Methods:
- Compounded Liquid: Veterinary pharmacies can compound gabapentin into a palatable liquid with flavors like tuna or chicken.
- Pill Pockets: These treat-like pouches are designed to hide pills and make them more enticing for cats.
- Mixing with Food: Crush the pill or open the capsule (if vet-approved) and mix it with wet food or a favorite treat.
Method | How It Helps | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Compounded Liquid | Easier to administer via syringe | Offer a small reward after dosing π |
Pill Pockets | Masks the taste and texture of pills | Ensure your cat consumes the entire pocket πΎ |
Food Mixing | Disguises medication in tasty meals | Use strong-smelling wet food for best results π |
π‘ Expert Insight: If your cat resists all methods, ask your vet about alternative formulations or professional administration.
π¬ Comment 4: “Can I combine gabapentin with other medications for better results?”
Yes, gabapentin can be safely combined with certain medications to enhance its effects, but this should always be done under a veterinarianβs supervision. Combination therapy is common for conditions like chronic pain or refractory seizures.
Common Medication Combinations:
- For Pain Management: Gabapentin is often paired with anti-inflammatory drugs like meloxicam or corticosteroids for synergistic pain relief.
- For Anxiety: In severe cases, it may be combined with sedatives like trazodone.
- For Seizures: Gabapentin works well alongside phenobarbital or levetiracetam to control refractory seizures.
Medication | Why Itβs Combined | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Anti-Inflammatories | Enhances pain relief | Monitor for side effects like GI upset π©Ί |
Sedatives | Reduces severe anxiety | Use for highly stressful events like travel βοΈ |
Anticonvulsants | Improves seizure control | Keep a detailed log of seizure frequency π |
π‘ Expert Insight: Always inform your vet of all medications your cat is taking to avoid harmful interactions.
π¬ Comment 5: “What should I do if my cat accidentally receives too much gabapentin?”
If your cat accidentally ingests an overdose of gabapentin, prompt action is essential. The severity of symptoms depends on the dose consumed, but veterinary attention is often required.
Signs of Overdose:
- Severe Sedation: Extreme lethargy, inability to stand, or unresponsiveness.
- Ataxia: Pronounced loss of coordination or stumbling.
- Vomiting: Gastrointestinal upset may occur with large doses.
Steps to Take:
- Contact Your Vet Immediately: Provide details about the dosage and timing of the overdose.
- Do Not Induce Vomiting: Unless explicitly instructed by a veterinarian.
- Monitor Symptoms: Keep a close eye on your catβs behavior and note any worsening signs.
Symptom | What to Do | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Sedation | Ensure your cat is in a safe space | Prevent falls by confining them to a low area ποΈ |
Ataxia | Monitor closely for worsening symptoms | Contact your vet if mobility worsens |
Vomiting | Note frequency and volume | Hydrate your cat with small amounts of water π§ |
π‘ Expert Insight: Bring the medication packaging to your vet for precise identification and treatment.
π¬ Comment 6: “Is there a risk of dependency or withdrawal symptoms with long-term gabapentin use?”
Yes, gabapentin can lead to dependency with long-term use, and sudden discontinuation may cause withdrawal symptoms. Gradual tapering under veterinary supervision is crucial to avoid complications.
Withdrawal Symptoms:
- Increased Anxiety: Cats may become more restless or irritable.
- Pain Flare-Ups: Underlying conditions like arthritis may worsen temporarily.
- Neurological Effects: Rarely, withdrawal can lead to tremors or seizures.
Risk | Why It Happens | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Dependency | Long-term nervous system adaptation | Taper doses gradually as advised by your vet |
Pain Flare-Ups | Return of underlying conditions | Pair tapering with alternative treatments |
Neurological Symptoms | Sudden discontinuation effects | Monitor for unusual behaviors post-taper |
π‘ Expert Insight: Never stop gabapentin abruptly. Work with your veterinarian to create a tapering schedule tailored to your catβs needs.
π¬ Comment 7: “Can gabapentin help cats with arthritis-related pain?”
Yes, gabapentin is commonly prescribed for managing arthritis-related pain in cats, especially when other treatments are insufficient or contraindicated. It is particularly effective for neuropathic pain associated with arthritis and works well as part of a multi-modal pain management plan.
How Gabapentin Works for Arthritis:
- Nerve Pain Modulation: Reduces overactive nerve signaling, which is common in arthritic cats.
- Combination Therapy: Enhances the effects of other medications like NSAIDs or joint supplements.
- Improved Mobility: Eases pain, encouraging movement that supports joint health.
Aspect | Effectiveness for Arthritis | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Pain Reduction | Targets chronic, neuropathic pain | Monitor mobility improvements weekly π |
Combination Potential | Works with anti-inflammatories | Ask your vet about pairing it with glucosamine 𦴠|
Encourages Activity | Eases stiffness for better movement | Combine with low-impact exercise routines π |
π‘ Expert Insight: Consider joint-friendly supplements like omega-3 fatty acids or hyaluronic acid to complement gabapentinβs pain-relieving effects.
π¬ Comment 8: “Can gabapentin be used for dental pain in cats?”
Yes, gabapentin is an excellent option for managing dental pain in cats, particularly in cases of oral surgery recovery or severe dental disease. Its analgesic properties are effective for reducing discomfort and improving recovery outcomes.
How It Helps with Dental Pain:
- Nerve Pain Relief: Dental conditions often involve nerve inflammation, which gabapentin effectively soothes.
- Post-Surgical Comfort: Reduces pain following tooth extractions or oral surgeries.
- Stress Reduction: May also help calm anxious cats during dental procedures.
Dental Pain Scenario | How Gabapentin Helps | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Nerve Inflammation | Relieves sharp, localized pain | Administer 1β2 hours before vet visits |
Post-Surgery | Eases discomfort during healing | Combine with antibiotics for full recovery π |
Stress Management | Calms anxiety during dental care | Use as a pre-visit sedative if recommended |
π‘ Expert Insight: Always pair gabapentin for dental pain with regular oral care like brushing or dental treats to prevent recurring issues.
π¬ Comment 9: “How long does it take for gabapentin to start working in cats?”
Gabapentin typically starts working within 1 to 2 hours of administration. The onset time may vary slightly depending on the catβs metabolism, weight, and the condition being treated.
Expected Timeline:
- Anxiety Relief: Effects are noticeable within 1β3 hours, making it ideal for pre-stress scenarios like vet visits.
- Pain Management: Pain relief often begins within 2 hours, though full benefits may require consistent dosing.
- Seizure Control: Longer-term benefits become apparent after several doses, especially in combination therapies.
Condition | Time to Effect | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Anxiety | 1β3 hours | Plan doses ahead of stressful events β³ |
Pain Relief | Within 2 hours | Observe changes in movement or posture |
Seizure Control | Requires consistent dosing over time | Track seizure activity for gradual improvements π |
π‘ Expert Insight: To maximize effectiveness, administer gabapentin on an empty stomach unless your vet advises otherwise.
π¬ Comment 10: “Does gabapentin need to be refrigerated?”
Gabapentinβs storage requirements depend on its formulation. While most tablets and capsules do not require refrigeration, liquid gabapentin (especially compounded versions) may need refrigeration to maintain potency.
Storage Guidelines:
- Tablets and Capsules: Store at room temperature (68Β°Fβ77Β°F or 20Β°Cβ25Β°C) in a dry, dark place.
- Compounded Liquid: Often requires refrigeration at 36Β°Fβ46Β°F (2Β°Cβ8Β°C). Check the pharmacy label.
- Avoid Freezing: Freezing liquid formulations can degrade the active ingredients.
Formulation | Storage Requirement | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Tablets/Capsules | Room temperature | Store in an airtight container away from sunlight π |
Compounded Liquid | Refrigeration required | Label medication clearly to avoid mishandling |
Avoid Freezing | Freezing damages liquid medications | Use a fridge thermometer for accuracy βοΈ |
π‘ Expert Insight: Always read the storage instructions provided by your veterinarian or pharmacist to ensure safe use.
π¬ Comment 11: “Is gabapentin safe for senior cats?”
Gabapentin is generally safe for senior cats, but dosing and monitoring are especially critical in older pets due to their slower metabolism and potential underlying conditions.
Senior Cat Considerations:
- Adjusted Dosage: Lower starting doses are often recommended to avoid sedation or side effects.
- Kidney and Liver Function: Aging organs may process gabapentin less efficiently, necessitating regular bloodwork.
- Multi-Drug Interactions: Senior cats often take additional medications, so itβs crucial to avoid harmful interactions.
Aspect | Why It Matters | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Reduced Dosing | Prevents excessive sedation | Begin with the lowest effective dose π |
Organ Monitoring | Identifies processing inefficiencies | Schedule biannual blood tests for safety π©Έ |
Interaction Risks | Seniors often take multiple medications | Provide your vet with a full medication list ποΈ |
π‘ Expert Insight: Gabapentin can significantly improve the quality of life for senior cats, especially those with chronic pain or arthritis, when monitored closely.
π¬ Comment 12: “Can I give gabapentin to a cat with kidney disease?”
Gabapentin can be used in cats with kidney disease, but extra caution is required. Reduced kidney function may slow the clearance of the drug, increasing the risk of sedation and toxicity.
Guidelines for Cats with Kidney Disease:
- Adjusted Dosage: Lower doses and extended intervals between administrations are typically necessary.
- Regular Monitoring: Kidney function tests (e.g., BUN, creatinine) should be conducted to ensure safety.
- Hydration Support: Maintaining hydration can help with drug metabolism and overall kidney health.
Consideration | Why Itβs Critical | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Dose Adjustments | Prevents accumulation in the body | Work with your vet to create a tailored plan π οΈ |
Kidney Monitoring | Ensures safe drug clearance | Schedule quarterly lab work for monitoring |
Hydration | Supports kidney function during treatment | Use subcutaneous fluids if recommended π§ |
π‘ Expert Insight: Always inform your vet about any pre-existing kidney issues before starting gabapentin to avoid complications.
π¬ Comment 13: “Can gabapentin be used to calm cats during travel or vet visits?”
Yes, gabapentin is highly effective for reducing stress and anxiety during travel or veterinary visits. It works by modulating nerve signals, leading to a calming effect that makes stressful situations more manageable for your cat.
How Gabapentin Helps with Stress:
- Reduces Overstimulation: Calms the nervous system, making cats less reactive to loud noises and unfamiliar environments.
- Improves Cooperation: Sedative effects make it easier for vets to handle anxious cats.
- Minimizes Trauma: Prevents long-term fear associations with travel or medical care.
Use Case | Why Itβs Effective | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Travel | Reduces anxiety during car rides | Administer 1.5β3 hours before departure π |
Vet Visits | Helps cats remain calm during exams | Bring a favorite blanket to enhance comfort ποΈ |
Grooming/Other Events | Useful for other high-stress situations | Use gabapentin only as prescribed for safety |
π‘ Expert Insight: Always administer gabapentin before signs of stress begin, as preemptive dosing is more effective than reactive measures.
π¬ Comment 14: “Whatβs the difference between gabapentin and trazodone for cats?”
Gabapentin and trazodone are both used to manage anxiety and stress in cats, but they work differently and are often chosen based on specific needs or medical conditions.
Key Differences:
- Mechanism of Action: Gabapentin calms the nervous system, while trazodone is a serotonin receptor antagonist that directly reduces anxiety.
- Primary Use: Gabapentin is better for cats with concurrent pain, while trazodone is more targeted for anxiety or behavioral issues.
- Onset and Duration: Gabapentin acts quickly (1β2 hours), whereas trazodone may require a longer lead time (2β3 hours) for maximum effect.
Medication | Primary Use | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Gabapentin | Pain relief and anxiety management | Ideal for cats with chronic pain or arthritis πΎ |
Trazodone | Behavioral anxiety reduction | Better for cats without concurrent pain |
Combination | Can be combined for severe cases | Consult your vet before combining drugs π |
π‘ Expert Insight: Both medications are effective for situational stress; the choice often depends on whether your cat also needs pain relief alongside anxiety management.
π¬ Comment 15: “Can gabapentin cause behavioral changes in cats?”
Yes, gabapentin can cause temporary behavioral changes, which are typically mild and resolve as your cat adjusts to the medication. These changes are often due to its sedative effects or the relief of chronic pain.
Common Behavioral Changes:
- Increased Sleepiness: Cats may seem lethargic or drowsy, especially after the first few doses.
- Improved Mood: Relief from pain or anxiety can result in a calmer, more relaxed demeanor.
- Temporary Disorientation: Ataxia (loss of coordination) can cause clumsiness or confusion, especially at higher doses.
Behavioral Change | Why It Happens | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Sleepiness | Sedative effects on the nervous system | Schedule doses during your catβs resting hours π |
Mood Improvement | Pain relief enhances overall well-being | Monitor for signs of increased activity |
Disorientation | High doses can affect motor skills | Lower the dose if symptoms persist |
π‘ Expert Insight: If behavioral changes last longer than a few days or seem severe, consult your vet to reassess the dosage or treatment plan.
π¬ Comment 16: “What are the signs that my cat may be allergic to gabapentin?”
Although rare, cats can exhibit allergic reactions to gabapentin. Recognizing these signs early and seeking immediate veterinary care is crucial.
Signs of Allergic Reaction:
- Swelling: Noticeable around the face, lips, or paws.
- Difficulty Breathing: Wheezing or labored breathing may indicate a severe reaction.
- Hives or Rash: Skin irritation, redness, or bumps may appear.
- Vomiting/Diarrhea: Persistent gastrointestinal upset can also signal an allergy.
Symptom | What It Indicates | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Facial Swelling | Early sign of an allergic reaction | Contact your vet immediately for antihistamines |
Breathing Difficulty | Potentially life-threatening | Seek emergency care right away π¨ |
Hives or Rash | Skin sensitivity to the medication | Discontinue gabapentin until further advice |
GI Upset | Possible intolerance rather than allergy | Discuss alternative medications with your vet |
π‘ Expert Insight: Always monitor your cat closely after starting a new medication, especially during the first few doses.
π¬ Comment 17: “Can gabapentin be used for behavioral issues in cats?”
Gabapentin is effective for certain behavioral issues related to stress and anxiety, but it is not typically used for chronic behavioral modification. Instead, itβs best suited for situational anxiety or stress-related behaviors.
When Gabapentin Helps:
- Fear-Based Behaviors: Hiding, excessive vocalization, or aggression during stressful events like thunderstorms or fireworks.
- Travel-Related Stress: Reduces pacing, panting, or vocalizing during car rides.
- Vet-Visit Aggression: Calms cats prone to hissing or scratching during exams.
Behavioral Issue | How Gabapentin Helps | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
Fear Responses | Eases acute stress reactions | Administer 1β3 hours before triggering events π©οΈ |
Travel Stress | Reduces anxiety during car rides | Keep your cat in a secure carrier for added safety π |
Vet Aggression | Calms defensive behaviors | Use a pheromone spray in the carrier as a complement |
π‘ Expert Insight: Gabapentin is not a substitute for behavioral training or environmental changes. Pair it with other strategies like desensitization for long-term solutions.
π¬ Comment 18: “Is it safe to give gabapentin with food?”
Yes, gabapentin can be safely administered with food. In fact, giving it with a small meal or treat may help reduce the risk of gastrointestinal upset, especially in sensitive cats.
Benefits of Administering with Food:
- Improved Tolerance: Reduces the chance of vomiting or stomach irritation.
- Easier Administration: Mixing with wet food or a favorite treat ensures compliance.
- Steady Absorption: While gabapentinβs absorption is not heavily affected by food, consistent dosing routines can improve effectiveness.
Aspect | Why Food Helps | π‘ Tip |
---|---|---|
GI Tolerance | Prevents stomach upset | Use a highly palatable treat like tuna π |
Ease of Use | Cats are more willing to eat medications | Disguise pills in wet food for seamless dosing |
Absorption | Ensures steady drug levels | Administer doses at the same time daily β° |
π‘ Expert Insight: If your cat has dietary restrictions, consult your vet before combining gabapentin with specific foods or treats.